1. Resource Degradation: Soil erosion, deforestation, landslides, loss of biodiversity, and degradation of land and water resources are common problems throughout the mountainous areas in . The loss of these resources and further erosion of indigenous knowledge and culture has seriously affected mountain households-both directly, in terms of the loss of products from these resources, and indirectly, in terms of their impacts on agricultural and non-agricultural activities.

2. Livelihood Uncertainty: Economic reform was initiated two decades ago in China with the landmark introduction of the "Household Responsibility System." The rapid economic growth and dramatic social changes have also generated great impacts on the natural resources and livelihood of indigenous communities, particularly in upland watershed areas. This intends to improve the livelihoods of upland communities, manage effectively the conflict and competition between upland and lowland communities over resource rights, and guarantee equity in the distribution of land, forest and water resources.

3. Loss of Cultural Identity: Disappearance of cultural practitioners, low self-confidence and self-esteem, and external dependence all comprise aspects of loss of cultural identity. Cultural identity refers to the solidarity of language, kinship, traditional leadership, respect for elders and indigenous practices, and social events such as festivals, rituals and ceremonies. Its loss leads to weakening of social organizations and cessation of sustainable practices.